Saturday, 9 June 2012

Priestly Rhymes

I saw this video on YouTube; a little bit of light in the darkness. I am enjoying the rash of spoken word poems for God: 




Thursday, 7 June 2012

The NEW Argument From Fine-Tuning: Irrefutable

Arguments from fine-tuning are all the rage these days and I would like to give you my very own version of one of these arguments. It goes like this.


  1. If E then A
  2. If A then D
  3. If D then G
  4. If G then B
  5. If B then E
  6. If E, A, D, G, B, E, then ST (standard tuning)
  7. Therefore, standard tuning.
Now I know that premises 1, 4 and 5 are controversial when it comes to the tuning of the constant. Everyone uses this tuning, you can't write any new stuff because it's all been written, blah, blah, blah (technical talk by the way). So please allow me to refine the argument:


  1. If D then A
  2. If A then D
  3. If D then G
  4. If G then A
  5. If A then D
  6. If D, A, D, G, A, D then DT (dadgad tuning)
  7. Therefore, dadgad tuning.
Note how I revised premises 1, 4 and five by dropping a whole step and thus improving the overall soundness of the argument. I think that any true seeker of fine-tuning will agree with me that this is irrefutably the most sound fine-tuning and thus making this the most sound fine-tuning argument in all of history. You can thank me later.

In Christ

P.L.

Tuesday, 5 June 2012

Mind: Languages Are Dying Around the World

As time goes on and the world becomes smaller and smaller (figuratively), native languages are becoming a thing of the past. Here is an interesting article I was reading about one of these languages. It doesn't even have an alphabet!

Read Here

Sunday, 3 June 2012

An Experience With The Divine


          In my life I have had two experiences that completely changed my outlook on everything. Both of these two experiences started as dreams, and both (I am sure) would leave anyone who experienced them to either (in regards to the first experience) entertain the idea of destiny, or the notion of omniscience, and (in regards to the second experience) accept the reality of Jesus Christ as Lord of all.  It is the first of these two experiences that I wish to talk about in this post, and I will warn you that there is talk of drugs and sex, so if you have any issues with either of these topics being mentioned, please refrain from reading (although in accordance with human nature you probably won't be able to stop now).
           Everyone has dreams, OK, almost everyone dreams (I've heard people claim to never dream) and when I say dream, I mean dream as in images experienced during sleep, not hard to obtain goals or lofty ambitions. A lot of people I talk to tell me that upon waking up they often forget what they had dreamt, usually only managing to retain sparse images or, in the case of  nightmares: the most frightening ones. I'm no different. Sometimes I retain what I "saw", but for the most part it is gone only a few hours after having started my day. Then there are reoccurring dreams, which are just like regular dreams, except that they happen over and over again, The repetition makes it easier to recall the details, and even to recognise it as it is happening, that you had dreamt it previously. Maybe you have had reoccurring dreams in your life, maybe not, but I am sure you know someone who has. It is a reoccurring I had that this first experience is about.
           When I really think about it, I have some pretty vivid memories that reach back into the beginnings my childhood. I can remember when my sister was a baby (I would have been about three) and I would sneak out of my room and sit in the hallway so I could watch television because it was past my bedtime. I can remember kicking an oil drum in my backyard and the stink it expunged due to stagnant rainwater that had collected inside and I can even relive riding in the very first car my parents ever owned. Another memory I can recall from my childhood is this dream that I am about to share with you because, for as far back as I can remember, it has been there. Sometimes I dreamt it as often as a few times a month and sometimes only a few times a year, but I can always remember it being there. As it would turn out, my dream would go from being  something that I experienced as I slept, into something that I would experience in reality. My dream literally came true, and I wish I could take it back.
           The dream itself was very strange, appearing to not make any sense, more of a series of events lacking any kind of chronological sequence. It seemed to be skipping from one place and event to another and the reality of it all was very distorted which was terrifying. If you are having trouble understanding what I am talking about, here is an easier way to understand it: Have you ever watched a DVD that was scratched and it jumps from one scene to the next? So the movie, of course, would make no sense to you, just as my dream made no sense to me. No plot, no getting to know the characters, just a bunch of scenes that made no chronological sense just seeming to be aimlessly skipping around but it always ended the same, with me looking down at a face, and then I would wake up. Each time I had the dream it would seem a little clearer but I still couldn't make any sense of it and I had no idea who the person was that I was always looking down at. This happened up until I was eighteen. 
           I come from a broken home and had moved out when I was still in high school. By the time I was eighteen, I had left my small home town on the east coast and was living thousands of miles away in the Canadian Rocky Mountains. I was hurting and didn't know how to cope with the painful memories, both recent and past, so I did what most do; I tried to drink and drug them away. One night I was drinking with a group of friends when a guy I knew asked me if I wanted to drop some acid. I had never done it before and didn't want to look like a wuss so I said, "sure!" He had four hits, he took two and I took two. Bad idea.
           I remember when the acid really started to kick in, we were in a field and it was pitch black. I got the impression I was invincible like some sort of super hero, and I turned my shirt into a cape and started running around this field in the middle of the night. I was yelling out, "I feel great! I feel so alive!" and my run turned into a full sprint which then turned into a *WHACK*! I ran, full tilt, into a picnic-table. It didn't hurt much when it happened (I was too high for pain) but the next day I was one huge bruise.
           That first 30-40 minutes of ecstasy I felt at first, however, changed dramatically all in one moment. I can remember looking at this steam coming off of this hotel where I was living, like it always had, but when you are on acid everything seems to grab your attention that much more. As I was looking at this steam I noticed it had stopped, and when I became aware of this I started looking around and I thought the cars on the road had stopped moving too(looking back now I think it was just parked cars). I started panicking, and started thinking the worst thing anyone could ever think when they are on a heavy dose of hallucinogenics: I started to think that I died. I kept saying to myself, "I can't believe I died tripping out on acid" and "How could I go out like this." I was distraught, having a horrible trip and to make matter worse, I was getting higher by the second.
           I can remember doing things like trying to climb shadows thinking they were stairs and running around in the woods. I tried to keep the guy who I took the acid with around me because I thought he was the only person left, like he was some kind of a guardian helping to usher me around in the next life. Yup, acid folks, stay away from it. But things started to get better once we got around some people, I was still tripping hard, but I wavered from the "I think I died" to the "maybe I'm not dead" entering myself into an unsure phase. This however is where things got even more messed up.
           When I finally became as high as I could get, reality it seemed, was skipping in time (sound familiar). It was as if I would close my eyes and be somewhere else. I don't mean that it was like I would close my eyes and I was in Hawaii and then close my eyes again and I was Siberia, rather, what was happening was that I was blacking out, yet I was still conscious, moving around and interacting with various groups of people. Each time I would emerge from one of these "blackouts" I would be confused how I got there and was becoming more scared. I had lost my "usher of the afterlife" (the guy who I took the acid with) and was on my own at this point. Around this time was when I went from thinking that I might be dead, to thinking I was dreaming. 
            This was the point where I began to live the dream I had so many times before, but I didn't realise it at this point in the night. What I have come to conclude, is that the periods of time that I was missing in reality were the periods of time that I dreamt about and the periods of time that were missing in my dream, were the periods of time that I was cognizant for in reality. It is a dangerous thing to think you are dreaming when in reality you are not, and by the grace of God I survived this night. I can remember walking down the hallway of my apartment building having an "Alice in Wonderland" kind of experience. The hallway appeared to be getting smaller, and larger and the doors were all different shapes and sizes. I can remember sitting on my bed and my roommate was rolling joints and I started seeing ashes on my bed. I tried to wipe them off but they kept reappearing. I also tried to start a fight with one of my room mate's friends because I was paranoid that he was smiling at me. I remember lots of things from the night, but what I remember the most was how my acid trip came to an end.
             I was thousands of miles from where I had grown up, but there was a girl from my home town there who I had once taken to the movies. After our date she didn't want more anything to do with me and rightly so. I wasn't popular or overly athletic and she was a beautiful girl who could do a lot better than me. But in this town where we were both living at now, I had been here for a while and was popular and girls did like me. I will never forget as we stood outside my apartment door and I said to her, "I know what you want and you know what I want." She smiled and said playfully asked, "what's that?" as she walked into my apartment. Now understand this, I was NOT good at talking to girls, I'm still not, nor would I ever of had the guts to say this to her, but I was as high as a kite on acid and I thought I was dreaming! This is the only reason why I said what I said, suddenly I was Don Juan. I think it is also important to note that I was also a virgin. 
              Now the whole night had been getting crazier and crazier, between the blackouts, thinking I had died, then to not being sure if I was dead or not, which lead to me thinking I was dreaming even though I still wasn't sure if I dead, I was a mess. After her and I went into my apartment I can remember it for the most part (I will spare you the details) but to make a long story, I wasn't a virgin any more. But it was during intercourse I looked down at her and when I looked down everything just clicked at once, and I realised who she was, and what I was experiencing and what I had experienced the entire night. I started to think (maybe out loud) "This is my dream! This is it!" I realised, this time, I wasn't dreaming and that I was in reality and with this I suddenly found myself snapped into a moment of clarity that I was alive and proud of it. Enthusiastically, and very  naked, I leaped to my feet and began to run around my apartment shouting,"I'm alive! I'm alive!" I woke up my room mate, yelling in his face as he was trying to sleep, "I'm alive!" There was a guy staying on our couch and I remember grabbing him by the face and yelling the same thing. He was so confused and probably a little scared having a 230 pound butt-naked dude, who was high as a kite on acid, screaming at him at four in the morning that he was alive. 
               The next morning I woke up and couldn't remember a thing, not one thing, until I asked the guy on my couch what had happened that he was a witness to. He was clearly upset (rightfully so) and started to tell me some of things I had done. I was embarrassed, but not nearly as embarrassed as when he said, "you should be apologising to that girl." In a flash everything that  I couldn't remember came back, and I don't think I had ever been more ashamed or disgusted with myself. I went down to see her and although we talked  I could only imagine the embarrassment she must of felt.  We hung out a few times after that, but once she left in the summer I only ever saw her once more and I was completely wasted at the time. I should of said I was sorry, but I was too young and too stupid to know what sorry was.  
                This has been a bit of confession time for me, and to be honest with you, it is the deepest I have ever reflected on this night and this experience. I had dreamt about this dozens of times before, from when I was a kid, until I was eighteen, having lived it only once and I never had this dream again. You might be saying to yourself that this some sort of detailed, drawn out, case of deja vu but I assure it was not. This was not some sense of having experienced it before, I DID experience it prior to this night, time and time again. I never recognised her as the person in my dream until it actually happened and now I can't get that image, her face, out of my head no matter how hard I try. Maybe you think it's some product of the brain and while I think my brain was obviously used to relay the message, the fact is I was in an altered state of mind. How could my brain put itself consistently in the future and under the effects of two hits of a strong hallucinogenic? It can't. Period. 
                 It was this experience that opened me up to the idea that there was some sort of plan, or that Something that knew every choice we were ever going to make and was showing me what I was going to do, long before I ever did it. I came to believe in destiny, even becoming a borderline determinist for a while. Through this experience I had come to believe that if this event in my life, which I experienced so many times previously came true, then that meant that all the people who were around me, their circumstances and choices also had to be true and had to happen. Because all their circumstances had to come true like mine had to, then why stop there? The whole world's choices and circumstances also had to happen. But as I thought about it I knew deep  in my heart that every choice I made up until then was of my own free will, even down to the very choice to take the acid. I can remember something in my heart screaming at me not to take it (my heart not my head) but in not wanting to look weak I did it anyway. I came to the conclusion that Whatever showed me what was going to happen in my life, wasn't the cause, It just knew.
                I wasn't searching for God at this point in my life, as a matter of fact I would tell people I didn't believe in Him. I wouldn't of called myself an atheist because I had no idea what an atheist was. I was, however lying, I felt there was a God, I just had a hate-on for Him because of the things that happened to me in my life. 
               This experience really set in motion a series of events that ended in me taking a knee for Jesus and admitting that He was my Lord and Master. It was a dream from my youth that became reality that started my eventual conversion to Christianity, and, strangely enough, it was another dream from my youth that became reality that would convince me that Jesus was exactly who He claimed to be, my Lord and my Saviour, but I'll wait before I get into that story.

In Christ

P.L.

Thursday, 31 May 2012

Evolution or Genesis: You Decide

"Why does Christianity always seem to be changing to fit the knowledge we obtain through science?" This is a question that often puzzles me for a number of reasons which I will try to explain.

The only view I can think that we appear to be wavering on is our "origin of life" view. The claim is made that Christians have always believed that the world was created in six literal days. The claim, however, is false and ignorant of the thinkers throughout church history. Origen (3rd century) opposed the idea of six literal days, Saint Augustine argued that Genesis 1 and 2 were written based on the understanding of the people at that time and Thomas Aquinas felt the same. The idea of a literal six day creation, although most certainly held by some previously (they had no "alternative"), is really a 20th Century advent of fundamentalist, North American based, Christianity.

It would seem to me that some atheists also view Christian acceptance of evolution as a win for naturalism and more proof of the delusion that is Christianity. That in this century of discovery and knowledge, we are grasping at the straws of a belief that - as we come to learn more about how the natural world works - is doomed to failure. I know what this kind of reasoning is like, I too used to think like this, even as a believer. I had no explanation for how God did what was claimed in the Book of Genesis, I just thought there was no way it could be done through evolution, because that meant God wasn't needed. But this line of reasoning was near-sighted and almost demonstrable to my faith as I starting to talk to people, whom I knew and trusted, that studied and endorsed evolutionary biology. They had no reason to lie to me, and I knew this; I was presented with a dilemma. Or so I thought...

Being thoroughly convinced of the existence of God and of the divinity of Jesus, I just couldn't make sense of it all, and was forced to put it on the shelf (way in the back, and covered it with a towel). But as of late I have been doing some thinking about it and came to realize just how foolish I had been. Evolution is far from being a defeater to belief in God or belief in the Christian religion for that matter. I have come to view it for what it is, a natural explanation and it has served to strengthen the conviction of my beliefs and to appreciate God's creation even more. See, once I realized that Evolution by "natural" selection is a presupposition of science based on what is testable, to use it as a logical means to conclude that God doesn't exist just doesn't follow and is really just begging the question/ arguing in a circle. Science is limited, it can't touch God and once you bring God into the equation, you are being philosophical and like I said, arguing in a circle.

As a Christian I believe that the supernatural, created the natural; that God created a natural world and I believe this is the view that has always been held by Christians (they just had no idea where natural ended and supernatural began). The world which God created would have to be self-regenerative, and a world in which He would have to interject as little as possible, if at all, except at the very moment of creation. A universe who's events were planned out in advance to bring about the existence of human beings - child's play for an omniscient Being. God knew that man would be curious in nature (again with the omniscience) and would seek answers to the way in which the world around him works (2 Timothy 3:7). God gave us free-will and made us highly intelligent, so as to not make the case so convincing for His existence that we were forced to conclude that only a God could make it happen, we can conceive of other ways (sort of).

Back to the Genesis account and evolution. Let me pose this to you, and it is somewhat along the lines of Saint Augustine. If you were a Jew living 3500 years ago and God came to you and gave you, seven visions or dreams, or say one vision separated by evening and night, of the history of creation from start to now, how would you describe it so that others around you could relate to it ? Scientifically? But science wasn't even a thought. Would tell it as a tale, as a summary of the events you witnessed? That sounds more like it. The funny thing is, the more we learn about the history of the universe and our planet, the more it looks like a long drawn out tale of the genesis account. We have a long way to go, but everything had a beginning, like an ancient man wrote down long, long ago.

I may be deemed an "theistic evolutionist," but if that is the case then I am also a theistic cosmologist, physicist, chemist, logician, et al. I believe God created a natural world, not a supernatural one and as such our science is only studying His creation, which is representative of His omnipotence and omniscience. Now, if you think I am dismissing the Genesis account I should say that I believe it is a literal representation of the events through the eyes of a ancient man, in an ancient time, who described what was shown to Him as it was shown to him and that is something that every scientist on the planet would kill to see: the very formation of our universe and of our planet from the beginning of time, up until this age.

Never again will I be able to understand how the exploration of the natural world eliminates God, for me it has only enhanced my understanding of Him. Christians are not changing in their beliefs and although we may differ on second, third or fourth order beliefs, this is because we are human and our understanding is where we differ. Our core beliefs remain the same, we believe that God exists and that Jesus died for our sins, just as time goes on we come to know more about our God through the natural world, and a God that we come to know more and more about as we build off of present generations, well, that's a God I can not only come to appreciate, but one in whom I can, and indeed have, come to love.





Sunday, 27 May 2012

Pentecost 2012


          Today is the day of Pentecost which marks the day that we were given the hope that dwells within us, namely, the Holy Spirit. Can you remember when you first accepted Christ as your saviour and the Great Comforter entered your life? This is a great day to sit back and really think of the Gift that God has given us! Rejoice, my brothers and sisters!
          Here is a little bit of reading from the Book of Acts, I urge you to really take some time alone today and remember the time you first accepted Christ as your Lord and Saviour. We come to Him in faith, and it is accredited to us as righteousness.

In Christ,

P.L.

The Holy Spirit Comes at Pentecost

2 When the day of Pentecost came, they were all together in one place. 2 Suddenly a sound like the blowing of a violent wind came from heaven and filled the whole house where they were sitting.3 They saw what seemed to be tongues of fire that separated and came to rest on each of them. 4 All of them were filled with the Holy Spirit and began to speak in other tongues as the Spirit enabled them.
5 Now there were staying in Jerusalem God-fearing Jews from every nation under heaven. 6 When they heard this sound, a crowd came together in bewilderment, because each one heard their own language being spoken. 7 Utterly amazed, they asked: “Aren’t all these who are speaking Galileans? 8 Then how is it that each of us hears them in our native language? 9 Parthians, Medes and Elamites; residents of Mesopotamia, Judea and Cappadocia, Pontus and Asia, 10 Phrygia and Pamphylia, Egypt and the parts of Libya near Cyrene; visitors from Rome 11 (both Jews and converts to Judaism); Cretans and Arabs—we hear them declaring the wonders of God in our own tongues!” 12 Amazed and perplexed, they asked one another, “What does this mean?”
13 Some, however, made fun of them and said, “They have had too much wine.”

Peter Addresses the Crowd

14 Then Peter stood up with the Eleven, raised his voice and addressed the crowd: “Fellow Jews and all of you who live in Jerusalem, let me explain this to you; listen carefully to what I say. 15 These people are not drunk, as you suppose. It’s only nine in the morning! 16 No, this is what was spoken by the prophet Joel:
17 “‘In the last days, God says,
    I will pour out my Spirit on all people. 
Your sons and daughters will prophesy, 
    your young men will see visions,
    your old men will dream dreams.
18 Even on my servants, both men and women,
    I will pour out my Spirit in those days,
    and they will prophesy. 
19 I will show wonders in the heavens above
    and signs on the earth below, 
    blood and fire and billows of smoke.
20 The sun will be turned to darkness
    and the moon to blood 
    before the coming of the great and glorious day of the Lord.
21 And everyone who calls
    on the name of the Lord will be saved.’[c]
22 “Fellow Israelites, listen to this: Jesus of Nazareth was a man accredited by God to you by miracles, wonders and signs, which God did among you through him, as you yourselves know. 23 This man was handed over to you by God’s deliberate plan and foreknowledge; and you, with the help of wicked men,[d] put him to death by nailing him to the cross. 24 But God raised him from the dead,freeing him from the agony of death, because it was impossible for death to keep its hold on him.25 David said about him:
“‘I saw the Lord always before me.
    Because he is at my right hand,
    I will not be shaken.
26 Therefore my heart is glad and my tongue rejoices;
    my body also will rest in hope,
27 because you will not abandon me to the realm of the dead,
    you will not let your holy one see decay. 
28 You have made known to me the paths of life;
    you will fill me with joy in your presence.’[e]
29 “Fellow Israelites, I can tell you confidently that the patriarch David died and was buried, and his tomb is here to this day. 30 But he was a prophet and knew that God had promised him on oath that he would place one of his descendants on his throne. 31 Seeing what was to come, he spoke of the resurrection of the Messiah, that he was not abandoned to the realm of the dead, nor did his body see decay. 32 God has raised this Jesus to life, and we are all witnesses of it. 33 Exalted to the right hand of God, he has received from the Father the promised Holy Spirit and has poured out what you now see and hear. 34 For David did not ascend to heaven, and yet he said,
“‘The Lord said to my Lord:
    “Sit at my right hand
35 until I make your enemies
    a footstool for your feet.”’[f]
36 “Therefore let all Israel be assured of this: God has made this Jesus, whom you crucified, both Lordand Messiah.”
37 When the people heard this, they were cut to the heart and said to Peter and the other apostles, “Brothers, what shall we do?”
38 Peter replied, “Repent and be baptized, every one of you, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins. And you will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit. 39 The promise is for you and your children and for all who are far off —for all whom the Lord our God will call.”
40 With many other words he warned them; and he pleaded with them, “Save yourselves from this corrupt generation.” 41 Those who accepted his message were baptized, and about three thousand were added to their number that day.

The Fellowship of the Believers

42 They devoted themselves to the apostles’ teaching and to fellowship, to the breaking of bread and to prayer. 43 Everyone was filled with awe at the many wonders and signs performed by the apostles.44 All the believers were together and had everything in common. 45 They sold property and possessions to give to anyone who had need. 46 Every day they continued to meet together in the temple courts. They broke bread in their homes and ate together with glad and sincere hearts,47 praising God and enjoying the favor of all the people. And the Lord added to their number daily those who were being saved.

Saturday, 26 May 2012

Intelligence of the Ancients

         I once got into a very heated debate with a friend of mine who thought that we were more intelligent, these days, then the people in ancient times. I couldn't help but ask him if he considered himself more intelligent than the likes of Socrates or Plato. This was meant to be a rhetorical question, but to the rolling of my eyes, after looking up Socrates, and having discovered that believed thoughts originated in our chest cavity, he concluded that he was in fact smarter than Socrates.  

As frustrating as I found this discourse between he and I, I also learned something from it; a lot of people confuse knowledge with intelligence, and this has instilled a false sense of pride in people living in the modern age.
Firstly, knowledge is defined as information and skills acquired through experience or education; the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject, and intelligence as the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills. I would like to think that by defining the terms my point becomes clear, but I just can't "define and dash," so I will attempt to illustrate my point more perspicuously.

Let's for a minute put ourselves in the shoes of the ancients, say the same time as Socrates, in and around 450 BC. Human intelligence has not evolved since this period – I would even argue it has taken a few steps back on the species as a whole – and so you would be you, accept of course you would be you as you would be if you were born a fifth century BC Greek. You would be subject to the cultural milieu of where you would be born, but you would still be you. Here is the question to ask yourself: would you consider yourself an idiot? Well of course not! Just because you lack the knowledge of the modern age doesn't mean you are stupid. Available to you are all the cognitive faculties that you posses now. Think about it, you are no more intelligent than they were, the only thing that has changed is the knowledge that surrounds you, not your intelligence, this is something we as humans cannot change. This is the fundamental difference between knowledge and intelligence.

To address the second half about the misunderstanding of knowledge and intelligence and it's relationship to a false sense of pride amongst people living in the modern age, I offer two questions: (1) Did we all wake up one morning knowing what we now know today, and (2) are we still human?

Both questions have easy answers, “no” to the former and “yes” to the latter. What I am trying to illustrate with the first question should be obvious and found within the definition of knowledge. We did not come to our present knowledge of the world and it's inner workings by rolling out of bed one day and it all being there for us, it has built upon the shoulders of giants. From Newton to Einstein to Hawking, all of these men had equals from by gone eras whose successes and mistakes helped to shape what we know today. Moreover, take into consideration how brilliant the people must of been who first figured out how to write, or make clay pottery, or discovered the smelting process, or architecture. Do you think you could have figured that stuff out on your own? I doubt I could have, and I know I am no idiot.

The point of the second question is that people are people regardless of what era we live in and as such we are truly no different than those of us who are alive today. That is the false sense of pride, just because we have their knowledge to reflect on, does not mean we are more intelligent than were, as a matter of fact, we are not.

There is a religious significance to what I am saying here. You can say that people from a bygone era were more superstitious than us, but I say they just didn't know where nature ended and super-nature began. These days the lines are much more clear, but you shouldn't have a false sense of pride because our knowledge of the natural world somehow means the supernatural doesn't exist, science can't touch that, only your presuppositions can. Six billion of us believe in a God, even with all the knowledge of our natural world we posses today. There is something more to belief in God than objective evidence. It is not just some mechanism that we use to connect the dots in the knowledge that we don't yet posses. It is something we feel, something we have always felt and those people who lived back then were the same as you and I who live today. They couldn't explain it either, but they knew it was real, they same as us who believe today. Reflect on that.

In Christ

P.L.